disadvantages of animal studies in psychology

[15] found a significant increase in pep, energy, and feeling less worn out 3- and 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog while three studies found no relationship between the vitality domain and having a mobility service dog [17, 28] or a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35]. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. The Sad Truth About Pet Ownership and Depression - Psychology Today Only 5/27 studies (19%) described dogs breeds and sources. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. PDF American Psychological Association (APA) In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. A common argument against the use of animals in experiments is that animals are not good models for humans, based on the observation that we are not simply larger versions of lab rats - our bodies (and minds) work differently. As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. S1 Table. Increased research on this topic is likely in parallel with the increased roles and demands for different types of assistance dogs worldwide [2] as well as increased interest in the benefits of animal interaction for human health and wellbeing [60]. These are important issues that deserve better understanding and broader discussion. However, only 1/6 (17%) found a significant effect, in which Yarmolkevich found higher life satisfaction among those with a guide dog compared to a control group. On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Specifically, this review sought to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with measures tested for reliability and validity among individuals with physical disabilities. The research community tries to mitigate some of the harms by insuring, for example, that the animals psychological well-being is optimized; in fact, there is a large body of psychological research that focuses on animal welfare and identifying best practices to house and care for animals in captivity. Cruelty in Entertainment Disaster Response Companion Animals Dogfighting Dog and Cat Welfare Dog Meat Trade Farm Animals Animal Agriculture and Climate Change Factory Farming Plant-Based Eating Wildlife Fur Human-Wildlife Coexistence Rhino and Elephant Protection Seal Slaughter Shark Finning Trophy Hunting Whaling Wildlife Trade Other Ways We Help [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. Dr. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Animal Studies Of Attachment: Lorenz And Harlow - Psychology Hub 29 Major Pros & Cons Of Animal Testing - E&C To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). Author KR then coded 100% of articles. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243302, Editor: Geilson Lima Santana, University of Sao Paulo Medical School, BRAZIL, Received: July 22, 2020; Accepted: November 18, 2020; Published: December 2, 2020. Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. Animal studies in psychology - American Psychological Association Ethical Views on the Use and Abuse of Animals | Psychology Today This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). What are the disadvantages of being an animal behaviorist . A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 312 months follow-up). As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Top 112 + Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology Three Blind Mice, See How They Run: A Critique of Behavioral Research Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. t, F, or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [13]. Rintala et al. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. Summary of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by reporting section (. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. These studies were reviewed to complete three specific aims: to describe the key characteristics of studies, to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies, and to summarize outcomes. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. r/psychology on Reddit: The price of being single: An explorative study Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing - PLOS Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. Studies are often described without specifying that they were animal studies. To assess methodological rigor, a total of 15 extracted items were sourced from methodological assessment tools including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Study Quality Assessment Tools [24], the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) checklist [25], the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) checklists [26], and the Specialist Unit for Review Evidence (SURE) Checklists [27]. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Marguerite E. OHaire, Affiliation: Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). Construct a Regional Innovation Ecosystem: A Case Study of the Beijing In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human conditions like Alzheimers disease may very well be found, but it would certainly take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of additional people would suffer. In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs. Studying other species often avoids some of the complex ethical problems involved in studying humans. After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 1012]. Jamie Greer, [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and - PLOS This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Although this tendency occurs in many fields, the file-drawer bias may especially be prevalent in human-animal interaction research due to the preconceived notion that animals are beneficial for humans [80]. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. Exclusions included those based on population, outcomes, and methodology. For general psychological health, 5/11 (45%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. Capitanio, J. [43] found that individuals who had guide dogs reported less stress while walking, but not while using public transportation. Part of that approval process requires the scientist to identify whether there might be less invasive ways to do the same thing. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. This systematic review summarized the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) on standardized outcomes of psychosocial health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices. Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. Of 12 total vitality comparisons, 6 (50%) were positive (improved or better vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 6 (50%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. He is the former associate director for research at the Primate Center, a past president of the American Society of Primatologists, a recipient of the Patricia R. Barchas Award in Sociophysiology from the American Psychosomatic Society, a fellow of several professional societies, and in 2012, he received the Distinguished Primatologist Award from the American Society of Primatologists. Another early review published by Sachs-Ericsson and colleagues in 2002 [8] summarized 14 quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog or hearing dog placement (omitting guide dogs). All articles were screened by two independent reviewers (authors KR and JG) using Covidence systematic review software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia). For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. In addition, the scientist must justify the numbers of animals that they use, insuring they are using the smallest number possible. Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. The concept of a Regional Innovation Ecosystem (RIE) has gained significant attention in the academic literature and policy arena in recent years [1,2].Based on the inspiration of the natural ecosystem, the RIE was first introduced by Moore in 1993 as a framework for understanding the dynamics of innovation within a specific region [].The RIE can be considered analogous to a natural ecosystem . For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys. Pet-Owning Kids Are Generally Better Off Register for the early bird rate. Jane K. Yatcilla, Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions). He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. Abstract. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. The rhesus monkey connectome predicts disrupted functional networks resulting from pharmacogenetic inactivation of the amygdala. Limitations Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. Case study advantages and disadvantages. Case Study Advantages and Summary of psychological outcomes across N = 27 studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery). Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. We found that similar to the range of study characteristics observed, there was considerable variation in the methodological rigor of included studies. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Tissue cultures cannot develop depression, alco- holism, autism, learning disorders, memory impairments, aggressive behavior, social abnormalities, or other psychologically relevant prob- lems. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? APA 2023 registration is now open! Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. Finally, information regarding the ethical and regulatory environments in which animal research is conducted is covered in a superficial manner or omitted altogether. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Our first aim was to describe study characteristics of the literature. This means that any studies on animals cannot be accurately related to humans, making them invalid. Plants lack a nervous system and therefore cannot be used to learn about psycho- logical phenomena. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). However, this research is not only widely disparate but, despite its growth, has not been reviewed since 2012. In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [19, 76]. How Comparative Psychologists Study Animal Behavior - Verywell Mind (2017, January 1). The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they assessed outcomes from guide, hearing, medical, or mobility service dogs, if they collected original data on handlers psychosocial functioning, and if the outcome was measured quantitatively with a validated, standardized measure. They have advantages and disadvantages compared with other approaches. Promising areas include psychological wellbeing, emotional wellbeing, and social participation in which several positive outcomes were identified. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. It is unreasonable to assume that the changes to an individuals life following receipt of an assistance dog is identical for all ages, gender identities, backgrounds, and disabilities. Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today.

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